1881–1938
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, founder and first President of the Republic of Türkiye, was a military and political leader whose career encompassed the organisation of the Turkish National Movement and the far-reaching political, legal, educational and social reforms of the early Republic.
Mustafa Kemal was born in 1881 in Salonica, then a city of the Ottoman Empire. The precise day of his birth is not known. Salonica, today Thessaloniki in Greece, passed out of Ottoman control during the First Balkan War in 1912. His father was Ali Rıza Efendi and his mother was Zübeyde Hanım.
He attended military schools in Salonica and Monastir before entering the Military Academy in Istanbul in 1899. After graduating in 1902, he continued at the Ottoman Military Staff College and completed his studies in 1905 as a staff officer.
His early service included an assignment to the Fifth Army in Damascus and staff duties in the late Ottoman army. In 1909 he served with the Action Army during the 31 March crisis. He later served in the Tripolitan War around Tobruk and Derna, in the Balkan Wars, and from 1913 as military attaché in Sofia.
During the First World War, his command at Gallipoli in 1915 brought him national prominence. He subsequently held command responsibilities on the Eastern Front and in 1917–1918 with the Seventh Army on the Syria–Palestine front.
The Ottoman Empire signed the Armistice of Mudros on 30 October 1918. The following months brought Allied military control and territorial occupations in different parts of the empire. Greek forces landed at İzmir on 15 May 1919, four days before Mustafa Kemal left the official Ottoman chain of command in Istanbul for his inspection mission in Anatolia.
He arrived in Samsun on 19 May 1919 as Ninth Army Inspector. As his work moved beyond the scope intended by the Istanbul authorities, he was ordered to return. The Amasya Circular, his resignation from military service, and the Erzurum and Sivas congresses transformed his position from an Ottoman officer into the central civilian leader of an organised national movement.
Between 1919 and 1922, he led the political organisation centred first on the Representative Committee and then on the Grand National Assembly. As Commander-in-Chief he directed the Battle of Sakarya and the final campaign culminating in the Great Offensive of 1922.
The Treaty of Lausanne was signed on 24 July 1923, Ankara became the capital on 13 October, and the Republic was proclaimed on 29 October. Mustafa Kemal was elected its first President and remained in office until his death. His presidency was marked by extensive political, legal, educational, linguistic and social reforms.
Atatürk died at Dolmabahçe Palace in Istanbul on 10 November 1938. On 21 November his remains were placed in a temporary tomb in the courtyard of the Ankara Ethnography Museum, where they remained until their ceremonial transfer to Anıtkabir on 10 November 1953.
Mustafa Kemal travelled to Anatolia within the Ottoman administrative and military structure as Ninth Army Inspector. The Ministry of War ordered him back on 8 June 1919. After the Amasya Circular of 22 June and continuing pressure over his activities, he resigned from both the inspectorate and the military profession on the night of 8–9 July, continuing as a civilian.
The Erzurum Congress established a Representative Committee and adopted decisions that, although made by a regionally convened congress, had national implications. At Sivas, defence organisations were brought together under the Association for Defence of the Rights of Anatolia and Rumelia. The Damat Ferit Pasha governments generally opposed this organisation through dismissals, counter-propaganda and attempts to obstruct it; the failed Ali Galip affair illustrated this conflict.
“The Istanbul Government” was not one unchanging actor. Damat Ferit Pasha’s governments pursued a strongly anti-National-Movement policy, while the Ali Rıza Pasha government formed on 2 October 1919 followed a more conciliatory course. At the Amasya Talks, Salih Pasha negotiated on its behalf with Mustafa Kemal and the Representative Committee. Several points were agreed, especially reconvening the Ottoman Chamber of Deputies, but not every protocol was subsequently accepted in Istanbul. After Ali Rıza Pasha resigned in March 1920, Salih Pasha headed a short-lived government; it resigned amid the crisis following the occupation of Istanbul, and Damat Ferit Pasha returned to office in April.
The Ottoman Chamber of Deputies must be distinguished from the government and palace. Deputies sympathetic to the National Movement helped adopt the National Pact on 28 January 1920. After the formal Allied occupation of Istanbul on 16 March made the chamber unable to function normally, a new assembly opened in Ankara on 23 April. From then on, Istanbul and Ankara were competing centres of legitimacy, sovereignty, administration and military authority.
After Damat Ferit Pasha returned to office in 1920, opposition intensified. The fetwa issued by Şeyhülislam Dürrizade Abdullah on 11 April and the formation of the Kuvâ-yı İnzibâtiye formed part of efforts to suppress the National Movement and Kuvâ-yı Milliye. Representatives of the Ottoman Government signed Sèvres on 10 August, but the Grand National Assembly rejected it, never ratified it and did not recognise it as binding. Lausanne superseded it in the post-war settlement, while the abolition of the Sultanate on 1 November 1922 ended the dual political authority.
Born in Ottoman Salonica.
The precise day is not known; Salonica remained under Ottoman rule until 1912.
Entered Salonica Military Junior High School.
Entered the Military Academy in Istanbul.
Graduated from the Military Academy and continued at the Staff College.
Graduated from the Staff College as a staff officer.
Served with the Fifth Army in Damascus.
Served with the Action Army during the 31 March crisis.
Served in Tripolitania during the Italo-Turkish War.
His assignments included operations around Tobruk and Derna.
Served during the Balkan Wars.
Appointed military attaché in Sofia.
Commanded Ottoman forces during critical stages of the Gallipoli Campaign.
Held command responsibilities on the Eastern Front.
Held senior commands involving the Seventh Army and the Syria–Palestine front.
The Armistice of Mudros ended Ottoman participation in the First World War.
Returned to Istanbul as Allied warships entered the Bosphorus.
Greek forces landed at İzmir.
The occupation formed part of the immediate political and military context of the National Movement.
Arrived in Samsun as Ninth Army Inspector.
The Ministry of War ordered him to return to Istanbul.
The Amasya Circular was issued.
It described independence as endangered, criticised the Istanbul Government’s inability to act, and called for national organisation and a congress at Sivas.
Resigned from the inspectorate and Ottoman military service.
He continued his political activity as a civilian.
The Erzurum Congress met.
Mustafa Kemal attended as a delegate, was elected chairman, and joined the Representative Committee established by the congress.
The Sivas Congress met.
Regional defence organisations were united and the Representative Committee’s authority was broadened.
The Ali Galip affair sharpened the conflict with the Damat Ferit government.
The attempt to obstruct the Sivas movement failed, and communications with Istanbul were cut temporarily.
Damat Ferit Pasha resigned.
Ali Rıza Pasha formed a new government.
Its more conciliatory approach opened a temporary period of negotiation with the Representative Committee.
The Amasya Talks took place.
Salih Pasha represented the Istanbul Government; agreement was reached on several matters, including reconvening the Ottoman Chamber of Deputies, although not every protocol was accepted in Istanbul.
Mustafa Kemal and the Representative Committee arrived in Ankara.
Rail and telegraph links, relative security and proximity to the western front made Ankara an effective organisational centre.
The last Ottoman Chamber of Deputies convened in Istanbul.
The National Pact (Misak-ı Millî) was adopted.
The National Pact was publicly announced.
Allied forces formally occupied Istanbul.
Deputies and other figures were arrested, and the Ottoman chamber could no longer operate normally.
Mustafa Kemal called for elections to an extraordinary assembly in Ankara.
The Ottoman Chamber of Deputies was formally dissolved and an anti-National-Movement fatwa was issued.
The fatwa associated with Şeyhülislam Dürrizade Abdullah formed part of intensified attempts to suppress the movement.
The Grand National Assembly opened in Ankara.
It established a competing centre of political sovereignty and government.
Representatives of the Ottoman Government signed the Treaty of Sèvres.
The Grand National Assembly rejected the treaty and did not recognise it as binding.
The First Battle of İnönü was fought.
The Second Battle of İnönü was fought.
Mustafa Kemal received the powers of Commander-in-Chief.
The Battle of Sakarya was fought.
The Assembly awarded Mustafa Kemal the rank of Marshal and the title Gazi.
The Great Offensive began.
The Commander-in-Chief Battle ended in victory at Dumlupınar.
Turkish forces entered İzmir.
The Armistice of Mudanya was signed.
The Sultanate was abolished.
This ended the duality between the political authorities in Istanbul and Ankara.
The Treaty of Lausanne was signed.
Ankara was declared the capital.
The Republic was proclaimed and Mustafa Kemal was elected its first President.
The Caliphate was abolished and the Law on the Unification of Education was adopted.
The Turkish Civil Code was adopted.
The new Turkish alphabet was adopted.
Women obtained voting and candidacy rights in municipal elections.
Women’s electoral rights were extended to village headman and village council elections.
The Surname Law was adopted.
Mustafa Kemal was given the surname Atatürk by law.
Women obtained the right to vote and stand for election to Parliament.
The Montreux Convention was signed.
The six principles were incorporated into the Constitution.
The Hatay question became a major foreign-policy concern.
Hatay joined Türkiye in 1939, after Atatürk’s death.
Atatürk died at Dolmabahçe Palace in Istanbul.
His remains were placed in a temporary tomb at the Ankara Ethnography Museum.
His service extended from Damascus, the Action Army, Tripolitania and the Balkan Wars to the Sofia attaché post. During the First World War he commanded at Gallipoli, on the Eastern Front and with the Seventh Army on the Syria–Palestine front.
From 1919 he helped connect regional resistance through congresses and the Representative Committee, then led the political authority centred on the Grand National Assembly. As Commander-in-Chief, he directed the Battle of Sakarya and the final phase of the 1922 campaign.
Following Lausanne, the declaration of Ankara as capital and the proclamation of the Republic, Mustafa Kemal became the first President. His presidency combined state-building with extensive institutional reform.
After Lausanne consolidated international recognition, foreign policy emphasised sovereignty and diplomatic settlement. The Montreux Convention of 1936 restored Türkiye’s control over the Straits under an international regime. The Hatay question was a major concern in Atatürk’s final years, but Hatay joined Türkiye in 1939, after his death.
After Atatürk’s death, his remains were kept in the temporary tomb at the Ankara Ethnography Museum from 21 November 1938 until 10 November 1953. The permanent mausoleum was built on Rasattepe, a hill later known as Anıttepe.
An international architectural competition opened in 1941. The project by Prof. Emin Onat and Orhan Arda was selected for implementation in 1942, subject to revisions. Construction began on 9 October 1944 and proceeded in stages until 1953.
On 10 November 1953, Atatürk’s remains were transferred from the Ethnography Museum to Anıtkabir in a state ceremony. The complex includes Peace Park, the Lions Road, the Ceremonial Plaza, the Hall of Honour, the Mausoleum, and the Atatürk and War of Independence Museum.
The large stone sarcophagus visible in the Hall of Honour is symbolic. Atatürk’s actual grave is in the burial chamber below it, on the ground floor of the Mausoleum.
The process of selecting a permanent mausoleum site began after Atatürk’s death.
An international architectural competition opened.
Emin Onat and Orhan Arda’s project was selected for implementation.
Construction began on Rasattepe.
Construction proceeded in several stages.
Atatürk’s remains were transferred from the Ethnography Museum to Anıtkabir.
O Turkish youth!
Your first duty is forever to preserve and defend Turkish independence and the Turkish Republic.
This is the sole foundation of your existence and your future. This foundation is your most precious treasure. In the future, too, there will be internal and external enemies who will seek to deprive you of this treasure. If one day you are compelled to defend independence and the Republic, you shall not consider the possibilities and conditions of the situation in which you find yourself before taking up your duty. Those possibilities and conditions may assume an extremely unfavourable character. The enemies who seek to destroy your independence and your Republic may represent a victory without precedent anywhere in the world. By force and deception, every fortress of your beloved homeland may have been seized, every arsenal entered, every army dispersed, and every part of the country occupied in practice. Graver and more distressing than all these conditions, those who hold power within the country may be sunk in heedlessness, error and even treachery. They may even identify their personal interests with the political ambitions of the invaders. The nation may have fallen into poverty and destitution, ruined and exhausted.
O child of the Turkish future! Even in such circumstances and conditions, your duty is to save Turkish independence and the Republic. The strength you need is present in the noble blood within your veins!
In all matters in the world—in material matters, spiritual matters, life and success—the truest guide is knowledge and science. To seek a guide outside knowledge and science is heedlessness, ignorance and error.
Gentlemen, and O nation! Know well that the Republic of Türkiye cannot be a country of sheikhs, dervishes, disciples and adherents. The truest and most authentic order is the order of civilisation. To do what civilisation commands and demands is sufficient for being human.
I believe that the established general policy of the Republican People’s Party can be clearly expressed by this brief sentence: “We are working for peace at home, peace in the world.”
However rich and prosperous it may be, a nation deprived of independence cannot earn treatment, in the presence of civilised humanity, above the station of a servant.
Never let it escape your memory that the Republic asks of you generations free in thought, free in conscience and free in intellectual understanding.
To see me does not necessarily mean seeing my face. If you understand and feel my ideas and my sentiments, that is sufficient.